Thomas Aquinas Italian philosopher

Thomas Aquinas Italian philosopher famous for his theological writings, especially writings of his Summa Theologia statements that may have the greatest power in the weight of Catholic theological doctrine that never existed.
Nothing wrong if you say, no one ever philosophical system which worked so complete and so detailed and careful consideration so as performed by Thomas Aquinas.
The reader, Even if does not agree with the assumption or kongklusi Aquinas, yet can not help but be impressed with the greatness of this man. However, some of Aquinas's writings contain abstract and metaphysical issues that lay not see the practical meaning. He questioned ethical questions, too. However, his writings, although he sistematiskan Catholic beliefs before, did not reflect major changes in the ideals of ethics or political views. It also seems the readers of Aquinas's writings not necessarily be Catholics or Christians.Michael H. Hart,One hundred most influential figures in the history.

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Mahavira, Vardhamana The Great Hero

Mahavira (which means "great hero") is the name commonly used for the Vardhamana Jain, the main character of their religious development.
Vardhamana was born around 599 BC in India's northeast, in the same area with Gautama Buddha was born, although first generation. Surprisingly, both the livelihoods of many interesting similarities.
Vardhamana youngest child of a leader, and as well as Gautama gelimang raised in luxury. At the age of thirty, he was away wealth, relatives (he had a wife and a daughter), leaving a comfortable environment, and decided to seek the truth and spiritual fulfillment.

Vardhamana became pastor flow Parsvanatha discipline that although a small but very hard rules. For twelve years he was conducting meditation and thought himself, and during the conduct of moral boundaries and live in poverty papaan. Often fasting, no personal property in any form, not a cup or plate for a sip of water and collect a bite of rice given to me. Although initially there was her dress, but then dicampakkannya and walk around in a state of full body naked. He let his body and crawling insects diusirnya not bite even if the animal's skin. India is where the holy men wandering around, entered the village out of the village, jumped the gutter and the gutter, far more than his compatriots in the West. Although the appearance and behavior of Mahavira often cause people temptations, insults, humiliation and gamparan, yet all been swallowed up and diendapnya and no replies.

When reaching age forty-two years, Mahavira decided that he finally has reached the spiritual brightness. He spent the rest of the age of thirty years of preaching and teaching the spiritual deepening the already achieved. When he closed his eyes in the year 527 BC, he had gained many followers.

In some cases the doctrine of Mahavira is very similar to Buddhism and Hinduism. The Jain believes that if the human body dies, the soul is not me-too die with the body but the switch (reincarnation) to another entity (the human body does not need) The doctrine of this migration is one of the basic schools of thought Jainist. Jains also believe in karma, the doctrine of the ethical consequences of a deed will happen to him also in the future. To reduce the increasing burden of sin from the soul thing, that is purified, is the main goal of the Jain religion. Some of Mahavira taught, this can be achieved by way of the fun away. Special for Jain priests, are encouraged to live with the simplicity of implementing strict. It is a glory if someone let him die of hunger keranting dry!

Aspect, Jain religion is very important is the emphasis on the doctrine of ahimsa or non-violence. Jain confirmed that ahimsa non-violence, including attitudes toward animals and humans. As a result of this belief, they are "vegetarian" or just eat plants, including grass and weeds, when hooked. But, faithful adherents to the Jain religion is to do any further than that: mosquitoes that bite the skin is left at will; let hungry, not going to want to eat in the dark. Is not that dark lest can kemasukkan swallowed a fly or a scorpion? So, if you want to sweep the Jain followers he has a street or yard, he'll reach for the bag to do the wages of others, fear of who knows nginjak insects or worms.

Beliefs of this kind, it is clear Jain adherents are expected difficult moved to hoe the ground. On the ground a lot of ants, gasir, crickets and assorted small animals, is not it? Kegencet they could die that! So the fact is the people of Jain was not engaged in agriculture. And much more hand work that is prohibited by their religion. As a result, the Jain religion can serve as an example of how far things can affect the trust's behavior and way of life for citizens. Although they live in the area of agricultural land, the majority of the centuries old Jain adherents engaged in trade. Jain religious attitudes to encourage them to work diligently. As a result, it is not surprising when people are classified Jain and their participation in the arts and intellectual activities of India and prominent enough.

Origin, religion Jain has no caste system. But, thanks to the interaction constant with the Hindu religion, this system was also developed in Jainism, though not as extreme as Hindus. Similarly, although Mahavira himself did not talk about God or the gods, through such contacts that the worship of the gods appear as well. Because no material written by Mahavira, permeation of Hinduism to Jainism can not be avoided. From the other direction there is also influence the entry, namely the influence of Hinduism Jainism. For example, the rejection of Jainism and killing animals to eat meat appear to affect the Hindu religion. Furthermore, the Jain doctrine of "no violence" has become a sustainable impact in the minds of Indians, even down to modern times. For example, very strong Gandhi influenced by the teachings of Shrimad Rajachandra Jain philosopher (1867 - 1900), which he considered one of his teachers or teacher spirituilnya.

Jain religion did not have followers in large numbers. Now all of them in India is only about 2,600,000. This taste is not a large amount in relation to the world population. But, if the combined number of them in the period between the year 2500, of a large number as well. In this setting the significance of Mahavira, one must take into account the Jain religion, which perhaps more than other religions, had a lasting influence on the lives of adherents.
Michael H. Hart,One hundred most influential figures in the history.

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Meng-tse (Mencius)

Chinese philosopher Meng-tse (Mencius) is a replacement Kong Hu-Cu. Teachings, such as what is laid out in the book Book of Mencius, highly prized in China for centuries. He is often dubbed "The Second Sage," the wise man, which dropped its policy Kong's number two after the Hu-Cu-term difference to him about 2000 years.
Meng-Tse was born around 371 BC in a small country Tsou,
who is now in the province of Shantung. Period he was born, Chou dynasty final act, called by the Chinese with the nickname "The war of the country," since China is politically divided at that time. Meng-Tse, even though he is behind the tradition-Kong Hu Cu and always be a staunch supporter of the theories and ideas-Kong Hu Cu, finally respected as scholars and philosophers over the creation and work of thought itself.

Meng-tse spent much of his adult life traveling around the country in China and offer advice to the various authorities. Some authorities listened respectfully to him, and for a while he became Ch'i government officials, but across the board he did not have a permanent position or the decision maker. In the year 312 BC, when he was about fifty-nine years, he returned to his village in the country Tsou and settle down there until death. When did he die not clear, probably around the year 289 BC.

Meng-tse gathered followers during his lifetime, but his influence over China in part because terpokok Book of Menciusnya, which listed its teachings. Although the book could have experienced various improvements by his followers, very little doubt that the basics reflect ideas Meng-tse himself.

Image Book of Mencius colored idealistic and optimistic, reflecting strong confidence Meng-tse that human nature is basically good: in many respects, his political ideas are similar to Hu-Cu Kong; specifically, Meng-tse believe it is true that a king should govern the first - primarily by moral example rather than by force. However, Meng-tse closer to the "common property" than the Hu-Cu Kong. "The sky look like the people saw the sky as people hear hear," is one of the best statement.

Meng-tse stressed that the most important component of each country is the people, not rulers. Is the duty of the authorities promote the welfare of the people; in particular he must give the people moral guidance and with the proper conditions for life. Among the government policy he recommended: free trade; minor tax; conservation of natural resources; equal distribution of wealth than the current situation and the government supplies for the welfare of old people and the poor elderly. Meng-tse believe that the power of a king comes from the sky but a king who ignored the welfare of the people will lose the "mandate of heaven," and would properly be overthrown. Since the last part of the sentence that erodes the first part, Meng-tse basically emphasizes (long before John Locke), that the people have a right to rebel against an unjust ruler. This is an idea widely accepted in China.

Now talking in general, throughout most of the historical, political types are recommended Meng-tse is more popular among the people than among the authorities. Therefore do not be surprised if Meng-tse proposal is not accepted by the Chinese authorities at the time. But the way the time, his views became increasingly popular among scholars Kong Hu-Cu and among the Chinese people. Reputation Meng-tse, who was high, even a larger one in China is accompanied by the rise of neo-Confucianisme in the 11th century and the 12th.

In the West, of course, Meng-tse had no significant effect. This is caused partly by the fact that he wrote in Chinese. Tao Te Ching by Lao Tze is written in Chinese which practically coincided with the Book of Mencius, had been translated into various European languages a few times only because many people find the ideas presented in the book are curious. But relatively few Westerners have discovered Book of Mencius, the original special, or the mutilated.

Maybe it sounds interesting for the government to involve itself in the welfare of elderly and the poor and deformed; also sounds interesting to get a tax break. However, an American politician who announced that he supports both the political without a more specific explanation is unlikely to gain the trust of support by both liberal and conservative parties. Similarly, Meng-tse shows on the one hand he sided with the distribution of wealth and on the other hand showed his approval of free trade and lower taxes without a solution to the problem of how far the possibility of conflict between the two goes political. This may sound a bit dishonest for Meng-tse who nevertheless do not be a candidate for parliament. This may be expressed by a philosopher who presents a series of proposals virtue (though some are not consistent) in general, even if he did not specifically indicate how the conflict between two principles are solved. However, in the long run, a philosopher like Machiavelli, who express a clear choice instead of Meng-tse had a greater influence on the human mind.

However, the writings of Meng-tse has strongly influenced the Chinese people. Although the importance of not approaching greatness Confucianisme like St. Paul to Christianity (in one case Meng-tse lack the ability to persuade extraordinary that there is at St. Paul to attract people embrace pahamnya), he no doubt a writer who had a profound influence. During the roughly twenty-two centuries, his ideas learned in all areas with a population of more than 20% of the world. Only a few philosophers of any such influence the size. Michael H. Hart,One hundred most influential figures in the history.

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Niccolo Machiavelli, Italian Political Philosopher

Italian political philosopher, Niccolo Machiavelli, famous for his advice outspoken that a ruler who wants to stay in power and strengthen his power must use guile, cunning and lies, combined with the use of cruel use of force.
Cursed by many people as the bastard bennoral, revered by others as genuine realist who dared to expose to the world as it is, Machiavelli was one of the few authors whose work was so close to the study of both philosophers and politicians.


Machiavelli was born in 1469 in Florence, Italy. His father, a lawyer, considered a leading member of the family, but not so located.

During Machiavelli's lifetime - at the time of the peaks of the Italian Renaissance - Italy is divided in small countries, in contrast to a unified country such as France, Spain or England. Because it is not surprising that in his time Italy was militarily weak but brilliant in terms of culture.

At times the young Machiavelli, Florence was ruled by the famous Medici ruler, Lorenzo is commendable. But Lorenzo died in 1492, and several years later expelled the Medici rulers of Florence; Florence became a republic (the Florentine Republic) and in 1498, Machiavelli was twenty-nine years old have a high position in the civil government of Florence. For fourteen years after that he served the Florentine Republic and engage in various diplomatic missions on his behalf, to travel to France, Germany, and Italy in the country.

Year 1512, the Florentine Republic was overthrown and the Medici rulers re-hold the reins of power, Machiavelli was dismissed from his position, and the following year he was arrested for alleged involvement in the conspiracy against the Medici rulers. He was tortured but survived his innocence and was eventually released in that year. After that he retired and living in a small plantation in San Casciano not far from Florence.

During the fourteen years after that, he wrote several books, two of the most famous of which is The Prince, (The Prince) was written in 1513, and The Discourses upon the First Ten Books of Titus Livius (Discussion of the first ten books of Titus Livius). Among other works are The art of war (the arts of war), A History of Florence (the history of Florence) and La Mandragola (a good drama, sometimes people are still staged). However, the main works of famous is The Prince (The Prince), perhaps the most brilliant ever written and is most easily read of all philosophical writings. Machiavelli was married and had six children. He died in 1527 at the age of fifty-eight.

The Prince may be considered the most important practical advice to create a state. Basic thought of this book is, for a success, a prince should ignore moral considerations entirely and rely on everything, things on the strength and cunning. Machiavelli stresses above all the most important is a country must be well armed. He argued, only with the required troops from the country's own citizens who could be trusted; countries that rely on mercenaries or soldiers from other countries is weak and dangerous.

Machiavelli advises the Prince in order to support the population, because if not, he has no source of trouble. Of course, Machiavelli advised that sometimes a new ruler, to solidify his power, must do something to secure his power, was forced to do unpleasant citizens. He suggested, though it to seize a country, the conqueror should regulate violence as well as steps that they need not experience every day leeway should be given little by little so that they can feel good. "

To achieve success, a prince must be surrounded by ministers who are able and faithful: Machiavelli warns the prince to stay away from sycophants and asked what opinion is worth doing.

In chapter 17 of The Prince, Machiavelli discussing whether a prince is better hated or loved.

Machiavelli writes: "... The answer is that people should be feared and loved at the same time. ... More secure, but feared than loved, if we must choose one. The reason, love is bound by obligations that makes a person selfish, and bond It will end when dealing with their interests. ... But the anxiety prompted by fear of punishment subject, never miss ... "

Chapter 18, entitled "The way how a prince holding the belief." Here Machiavelli said "... a ruler who is not careful to hold the belief that if you work against the interests ..." He added, "Because there is no formal basis to blame a prince who apologized because he did not fulfill his promise," because "... people were so simple and easy to comply with the requirements needed at the time, and that those who cheat will always be find people who allow themselves be deceived. " As a natural result of this view, Machiavelli advises the prince to be constantly vigilant against the promises of others.

The Prince (The Prince) is often called the "user guide for the dictator." Machiavelli's career and the various writings indicate that in general he tends to the republican form of government than dictatorship. But he was anxious and worried over the political and military weakness of Italy, and longed for a powerful prince who could manage the country and dispel the foreign armies that damage and insult his country. Interesting to note, though Machiavelli advocated a prince to take measures cruel and cynical, he was himself an idealist and a patriot, and not so able to practice what he himself proposed.

Few political philosophers such as experienced fierce diganyang Machiavelli. Over the years, she cursed like a derivative of the devil, and his name is used as a synonym for deceit and cunning. (Not infrequently, the fiercest condemnation came from those who actually practice the teachings of Machiavelli, a hypocrisy that principle may also be approved by Machiavelli)!

Criticisms that Machiavelli was tossed into the face of moral reasoning is not, of course, shows that he is not influential at all. A more direct criticism is the alleged objection that his idea was not specifically out of his own head. Not original! This is somewhat a point. Machiavelli repeatedly asked that he did not propose anything new but merely indicates that the technique has been implemented by the Prince with great success earlier. Reality show Machiavelli incessantly describes his proposal as he took the example of the greatness, the greatness that had happened in times past, or from events in Italy are somewhat renewal. Cesare Borgia (the highly praised by Machiavelli in The Prince) did not learn the tactics of Machiavelli; on the contrary, Machiavelli who learn from them.

Although Benito Mussolini was one of the few political leaders who had praised Machiavelli in public, because it was no doubt a large number of prominent political figures have ever read The Prince carefully. It is said that Napoleon always slept on a pillow tucked beneath which the book The Prince, as well as they say committed by Hitler and Stalin. However, it is not clear that Machiavelli was more common tactic used in modern politics than in the days before The Prince was published. This is the main reason why Machiavelli is not placed higher than its present in this book.

However, if effect, Machiavelli's mind in political practice is not so clear, its influence in political theory need not be debated. Previous writers such as Plato and St. Augustine, has linked politics with ethics and theology. Machiavelli discussing history and politics entirely in terms of human and ignore moral considerations. The central question, he said, is not how people should behave; instead of who should be powerful, but how real people can get power. Political theory is discussed now in more ways than ever before without realisitis minimize the significance of the influence of Machiavelli. This person can accurately seen as one of the important founders of modern political thinkers. Michael H. Hart,One hundred most influential figures in the history.

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Mani, The Founder Manicheism

"The Prophet" Mani from the 3rd century AD was the founder Manicheism, a kind of "religion" which, though already vanished now, in his day has so many followers. Derived from the Middle East, Manicheism widespread. To the west until it touches the Atlantic Ocean coast, to the east to reach the Pacific Ocean coast. Religion can survive thousands of years.

Mani founded the religion is a mixture of interest from various religions that have existed before. Mani admitted Zoroaster, Buddha, and Jesus as the true prophet. But, he admitted to "revelation" that is more recent and more complete than all those who called ahead.

Although Buddhist and Christian elements there were in the religion of Mani, the doctrine of the most impressive (at least for Westerners) came from the dualistic Zoroastrian. Mani taught that the world is not ruled substance sole power, but part of the ongoing battle between two forces. One of them is a crime pokokpokok by Mani diidentifisir with darkness and objects; the other is the good points of light rays diidentifisir and soul. Sounds superficially like the Christian views of God and the Devil; but, in the schools of evil and good Manicheism considered basically have a balanced force. The consequence of this belief is a philosophical paradox of the existence of evil, which makes confused Christian and Jewish philosophers, but there was no problem at all in the teaching of philosophy Manicheism.

Just awful no place here expound the religious schools of Manichaeisrne. But, to be called that as a consequence of their identification is that the human soul and the basic goodness of the human body's main crimes, Manicheism adherents believe that all sexual relations - even to raise offspring purposes - should be shunned. There are also restrictions eating meat and drinking wine.

Cursory retrospect, it seems unlikely begituan kinds can doctrine had many adherents. But, the restrictions were not applied for ordinary members of the church adherents Manichaeis, but merely applied for a small group of people called "The people of choice." Ordinary members of the so-called "listeners" are allowed to have a wife or mistress, may reproduce, may ganyang meat, to drink wine and so on. There are various religious worship ceremony that binds the members. There are distributors of religious worship ceremonies that bind members of the "listeners" to follow and they are required to support the groups' chosen people, "but dipikulkan moral code into their shoulders is not exceedingly burdensome. (Of course, many other religions also prohibit marriage for priests, but not adherent, adherent mostly). Spirit of the "chosen people" directly into heaven when they die, while the road to heaven for the "listeners" a little convoluted. But, some Manichaeis sects, such as the name Cathari sect, believed that "listeners" can enter heaven as "chosen people" and in addition, they acquired a kind of relief for a still life.

Mani was born in 216 in Mesopotamia who was then a part of the Persian Empire under the rule of Arsacid or Parthian dynasty. Mani himself pure Persian and have a relationship with the authorities Arsacid. Most of the Persians embraced such beliefs Zoroasterianisme but Mani was raised from the family embraces a religious sect who had a strong influence of Christian doctrine. He's got religious views when he was only twelve years old and began to preach his new religion when he was twenty-four years. At first not so successful in his hometown. But once he traveled to the northeastern part of India and to attract local authorities to be his followers, it appears progress-progress.

242 years he returned to Persia and then have a listening audience including King Shapur sermon also be adherent, he was very impressed with the utterances allowed Mani and his new religion spread throughout the Persian Empire. (Empire of the latter is sometimes called the Sassanid Empire after a new empire was established around 226). After about thirty years later, under King Shapur I and Hormizd I, Mani taught her religion without any hindrance and a large number of followers. In that time period, delegates also sent to other countries. But, the success of Mani cause resistance from the Zoroastrian religion priest who became the official state religion of Persia in the reign of the Sassanid dynasty. Around the year 276, after rising throne a new king named Bahram I, Mani was arrested and thrown into prison. And after having tortured for twenty-six days, Mani died.

During his life Mani wrote several books: one in Persian, one in the Syrian language (a Semitic language closely related to language in the life Aramais Isa). These books are the official religion of Mani's book. When religion is destroyed, the books were gone. Some of them had found in the 20th century

From the beginning, Manicheism is a religion that attracted passionate adherents. In the Mani is still alive, her religion has many followers from India to Europe. After Mani's death, the religion continues to spread, extend to the west until it touches Spain and to the east until it touches the Chinese in the west. Peak in the 4th century, who was competing fiercely with the Christian Religion. (St. Augustine is an adherent Manicheism for nine years). But after Christianity became the official religion of the Roman state, Manicheism punched-out and religions around the year 600 was almost completely disappeared in continental Europe.

But, in Mesopotamia and Iran he still had legs. From where Manicheism spread to Central Asia, Turkestan and western China. In the late 8th century religion became the official religion of the Uighurs in charge of the western regions of China and Mongolia. Also spread almost all over China to the east coast and from there jumped to Taiwan. But, the progress of Islam in the 7th century, eventually wiping out Manichaesime. Starting the 8th century Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad with the clearing firm Manicheism and drop it in a very short time he was in Mesopotamia and Iran. Starting from the 9th century, religion was a swift decline in Central Asia and the invasion of the Mongols in the 13th century is practically a fatal blow. But, Marco Polo found incidentally still adherent Manicheism community in the eastern part of China in 1300.

Meanwhile, the various sects that originated from Manicheism first appeared in Europe. Paulician sects emerged in the area of the Byzantine Empire from the 7th century. Bogomil sect, sect strongest in the Balkans, spread around the 10th century. But the most striking in Europe is Cathari (better known as the Albigensian, derived from the name of the town Albi in France which is the basis of its strength). In the 12th century, the sect had acquired Chatari many adherents in Bropa, especially in the south of France. Albigensian sect, although their doctrine closer Manicheism, considers themselves Christians; orthodox church officials they consider apostate. Finally, Pope Innocent III Pope of the most tolerant and the strongest of the century popes was called "holy war" to eliminate them. "Holy war" that began in 1209; by the year 1244, after causing many casualties and extensive destruction in the south of France, the Albigensian sect completely destroyed. But, the sect was not abolished until Catharism century-I 5.

Each religion has a major influence on their adherents. For this reason, the founder of the religion though the slightest can not a person who has influence. (Unfortunately, but not to be trifled with, the teachings of Mani always digasak by various major religions).

Mani personal role in establishing a new religion was remarkable. He founded it, he designed his theology and arrange its moral codes. True, many of his ideas came from earlier thinkers, but that raise Manilah various streams of thought into the new system is clear. He also made changes to the Manicheism in his sermons, religious organizations develop and write scriptures. Rare co-founder of the religion has adherents of a mass movement was so great. Clearly, the establishment of religion could not exist in the world without his presence, and in this connection Mani, as leaders of other religions, have a meaning far more important than the inventor of scientific fields.

Therefore, Mani rightly gained a place in this book: the question, where? Obviously, he must be placed well below the founders of major religions (Christianity, Islam, Buddhism), the amount of billions of followers throughout the period. On the other hand, despite Zoroasterisme and Jainism still exists today, while Manicheism extinct, apparently in his prime Manicheism have far more than the followers of both religions and have a greater influence to the world in general. Michael H. Hart,One hundred most influential figures in the history.

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Thomas Robert Malthus

At first he was nothing more than a pastor who completely unknown. But in 1798 the English clergyman named Thomas Robert Malthus published a book that although very thin but influential. It's called An Essay on the Principle of Population as it Affects the Future Improvement of Society.
Malthus's main thesis is the notion that growth exceeded population
growth tends to the food supply. In this he has an original essay, Malthus presents his ideas in the form of a fairly rigid. He said, the population tends to grow "geometrically" (ie, the symbol 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 and so on) while food supply tends to grow "arithmetically" (eg, in rows 1, 2, 3, 4 , 5, 6, 7 and so on). In recent publications, Malthus stressed again his thesis, but not as rigid as the original, with only said that the population tends to grow indefinitely until it reaches the limit of food supply. Description of the two forms of the thesis that, Malthus concluded that the quantity of human will kejeblos into the swamp of poverty and hunger are ditubir. In the long run, there is no technological progress that shifts the situation, because the increase in food supply is limited, whereas "infinite population growth, and the earth could not keep memprodusir food for human existence."

However, population growth can not dammed in this way or that way? Actually not. War, plague or other calamity is often able to reduce the population. However, this kind of suffering only a temporary calmness served most of the population while the threat still hung over the head with a cost that is not fun. Berusul Malthus, a better way to prevent most of the population is "moral control." Apparently, what he meant by the term that a combination of slow mate, stay away from premarital sex, voluntarily refrain from intercourse frequency. However, Malthus quite realistic and realize that most people do not take care with the control-control kind of way. He further concluded that a more practical way is to stick to what it is: most people in something that can not be avoided anymore, and poverty is the fate of the people thereof could not escape. What a pessimistic conclusion!

Although Malthus had never advocated any population control through contraception, such proposal is a normal consequence of the idea anyway. The first person who openly advocated the use of contraceptives widely to prevent most of the population was an influential English reformer, Francis Place (1771-1854). Place the reading Malthus's essay, and very influenced by him, wrote a book in 1822, which it advocated contraception. He also divide the description of birth control among the working class. In the United States, Dr. Charles Knowlton published a book on contraception in 1832. "Institutions of Malthus' first formed in 1860 and the recommendations of family planning thereby increasing adherents. Since Malthus himself did not agree - on the basis of moral reasons - the use of contraceptives, the suggestion of limiting the increase in the number of people using contraceptive devices are usually called "neo-Malthusian."

Malthus doctrine also has important consequences for economic theory. The economists who influenced Malthus concluded that, under normal circumstances, most people can prevent wage increases beyond reasonable limits. The famous British economist, David Ricardo, Malthus was a close friend said: "The wages of a decent wage for workers is necessary to enable the workers to live and survive the battle, with no increases or decreases." This theory is commonly called "steel-wage law," approved by Karl Marx, and became an important element in his theory of "value."

Malthus's view also affects biological sciences. Charles Darwin said that he had read the Essay on the Principle of Population Malthus, and this presents an important link in the theory of evolution by natural selection.

Malthus was born in 1766, near Dorking in Surrey, England, he attended Jesus College at Cambridge University as a brilliant student. He graduated in 1788 and was assigned as an Anglican priest that same year. And in 1791 he received the title of "master" and in 1793 he became a relative of Jesus College.

The first version of the original work was published without a name, but widely read book and quickly make Malthus fame. A longer version of his essay was published five years later, in 1803.

The book repeatedly repaired and extended and the 6th edition appeared in 1826.

Malthus married in 1804 at the age of thirty-eight years. In 1805 he was appointed a professor of history and political economy at the East India Company's College at Haileybury. He shook the chair for the rest of his life. Malthus wrote various other books about the economy, and the most important of which is The Principle of Economy (1820). This book influenced many economists who came later, the special character of the 20th century the famous: John Maynard Keynes. In the last years of his life Malthus gained various awards. He closed his eyes in 1834 sixty-seven near the town of Bath, England. Two of the three children died recently, but Malthus bercucu not at all.

Because the use of contraception was not widespread until the distant days after Malthus's death, often considered one of Malthus had no significance. I think this assumption is not true. The reason for this. First, the idea of Malthus profound impact both to Charles Darwin and Karl Marx, which may be the two most important thinkers and most influential in the 19th century. Second, although the way the neo-Malthusian thinking is not simply swallow swallowed by the majority of the population, he suggested proposal is not considered the wind and just like that, after all never yawned out. Family Planning Movement of today is a direct continuation of the movement that began at the time of his life Malthus.

Thomas Malthus was not the first to have your attention the possibility of a quiet city government suddenly fall apart because most of the population. This kind of mind once also found by various philosophers. Malthus himself pointed to Plato and Aristotle had discussed the case. Indeed, he quotes Aristotle, who wrote, among others: the country average, if each resident is left free to have children at will, ultimately he will overcome poverty. "

However, if the basic idea is not entirely orisini Malthus, people should not downplay the importance. Plato and Aristotle mentions only in passing that the idea, and a touch of problems generally had been forgotten. Is Malthus who developed the idea and writing intensive subject matter. And more importantly, Malthus was the first to emphasize the horror of most of the population problem, and forward this issue to the attention of the intellectual world. Michael H. Hart,One hundred most influential figures in the history.

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Lao Tse From China

Of the thousands of titles of books ever written in China, perhaps the most widely translated and read abroad it is a book written over 2000 years ago, known by the name of Lao Tzu or the Tao Te Ching. This book is the Tao Te Ching or "The old way and its power" is the main text in which the philosophy of Taoism is specified.
This book is complicated book, written in a style typical
of the extraordinary and able to present the various form of interpretation. The central ideas associated with the common problem of the Tao is translated as "Way" or "Line." But the concept is rather vague, because the Tao Te Ching, the book itself begins with the sentence: "The Tao that is described is not the eternal Tao; names mentioned here is not the eternal name." But, can we say that Tao means roughly "Nature" or "Law of Nature."
Taoists believe that individuals do not wrestle against Tao thrall but must submit themselves and work with him. (A Taoist may appoint a soft water samples was limited, which flow without protest to the lower mainland and are not against any weak force, indestructible, but rock solid as any that could yield in the end).

To a person, simplicity and fairness are to be recommended. Violence should be shunned, as well as struggling for money and prestige. One should not desire to change, the world, but must respect it. For the government, which is considered a wise step is to do not so active, many of this set was banned. Moreover, the rules and restrictions are too much. Therefore, adding more laws, or amplify the provisions of the existing old, only result in worse condition. High taxes, government plans are too ambitious, promoting the war, all of which are contrary to the philosophy of Taoism.

According to Chinese tradition, the author of Tao Te Ching is a man named Lao Tzu who said contemporaneous but older than Hu-Cu Kong. However, Kong Hu-Cu living in the 6th century BC. And both - whether from the point of writing style and content - only a few scientists today believe that the Tao Te Ching was written during the early. There are different opinions about the real time compilation of the book. (Tao Te Ching himself never mentioned the name of a particular person, nor place, date, or historical events). However, the year 320 BC is a proper estimate of the time-actually eighty years of real time, and maybe even closer.

Family adherents schools of Taoism make offerings to the moon ahead of the autumn.

This problem makes a sharp conflict of opinion concerning the time comes to even the existence of Lao Tzu himself. While the authorities believe the tradition that Lao Tzu lived in 6th century BC, hence the conclusion he is not writing the Tao Te Ching. Other scholars consider him nothing more than a mere fairy tale figures. My own opinion, which only agreed by a minority of scholars, is as follows: (1) Lao Tzu was there really people and indeed the author of Tao Te Ching; (2) he lived in the 4th century BC; (3) Lao Tse's story that contemporary but older than Hu-Cu Kong is the information that far-fetched, the fictional and written by Taoist philosophers who came later just for the purpose of adding prestige to the person and his book.

Both noted, from the Chinese writers Kong Hu previous good-Cu (551-479 BC), or Mo Ti (5th century BC), or Meng-tse (371-289 BC) mentioned none of both Lao Tzu and the Tao Te Ching. However, Chuang Tse, a famous Taoist philosopher - who emerged around the year 300 BC Lao Tzu's name repeatedly.

Because about whether or not human beings in this world whose name Lao Tzu's still a question, should we even doubt the details of his biography. However, there are respectable sources in the form of the following statements: Lao Tzu was born and lived in northern China. Most of his life he became a historian or a supervisor is part of government archives, most likely in the city of Loyang, the capital of the kingdom of Chou dynasty. Lao Tzu is not a real name, but simply call honor roughly means "elder." He married and had a son named Tsung. Si Tsung then became a general in the state of Wei.

While Taoism originated from secular philosophy, but a kind of religious movement developed from there. However, because of Taoism as a philosophy to continue on the basis of particular ideas set out in the book Tao Te Ching, "Religion Taoist" was soon filled with confidence and full of worship, which means that very little superstition to do with the teachings of Taoism.

With a focus on allegations that Lao Tzu was the real author of the book Tao Te Ching, the effects really wide. The book is very compact (content less than 6000 Chinese characters, because it is still not a lot to be placed in a newspaper!), But he includes a lot of deep thoughts. The entire line of Taoist philosophers hold on this book as the base of the decline of his own ideas.

In the West, the Tao Te Ching far more popular than the writings Kong Hu-Cu or philosopher Kong Hu-Cu anywhere. In fact, there are at least forty kinds of English translation of the book was published, more than any translation of the book, except the Gospel.

While in China, schools of Hu-Cu Kong is generally a fad of the dominant philosophy, and clearly there is a conflict between the mind with Lao Tse Hu-Cu Kong. Most schools of Chinese people embrace the latter. But Lao Tzu is highly valued at the average by the adherents Kong Hu-Cu. And more than that, in many ways, the ideas just dibaur Taoist ideas-Kong Hu Cu, because it affects millions of people while not calling themselves Taoist. Similarly, Taoism has a clear influence on the development of Buddhist philosophy in China, especially of Zen Buddhism. Although few people now call themselves Taoist, no one except the Chinese philosopher Hu-Cu Kong which has influence so wide and so steady the human mind as well as Lao Tse. Michael H. Hart,One hundred most influential figures in the history.

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Rene Descartes

In the village of La Haye in 1596 was the baby born Rene Descartes, philosopher, scientist, a famous French mathematician. When he was young Jesuit school, College of La Fleche. Once the age of twenty he was able to master degree in law from the University of Poitiers though never practice of science altogether. Although Descartes get good education, but he believes there really anything that science can be trusted without mathematics. Therefore, instead he continued his formal education, rover decision here but around Europe and see the world with their own eyes. Thanks to basically come from a family in, it is possible he was wandering around freely and loosely. There's no money problems.

From 1616 until 1628, Descartes actually jumping back and forth, from one country to another. He entered the army for three different (Netherlands, Germany and Honggaria), although apparently he never fought at all. Also visited Italy, Polish, Danish and other countries. In these years, he collects what it deems is a general method to find the truth. When he was thirty-two years, Descartes decided to use his method in an attempt to build a real picture of the world. He then settled in the Netherlands and lived there for not less than twenty-one years. (They chose the Netherlands because the country was considered to provide intellectual freedom greater than other countries, and because he wanted to distance themselves from the Parisian social life is not reassuring enough).

Around the year 1629 he wrote Rules for the Direction of the Mind book that gives the outlines of his methods. However, this book is not complete and it seems he does not intend to publish it. First published more than fifty years after Descartes died. From 1630 until 1634, Descartes used his method of scientific research. To learn more about the anatomy and physiology, he was doing assessments separately. He struggled in areas that stand alone as optics, meteorology, mathematics and various branches of science.

Descartes' own desire becomes present the results of scientific investigations in a book called Le Monde (The World). However, in the year 1633, when the book was almost done, he with the church authorities in Italy condemned Galileo for supporting Copernicus' theory that the world is actually round, not flat, and the earth rotates around the sun, not vice versa. While in Holland he was not under the authority of the Catholic church, yet he resolved to be careful to not publish the book even though he actually agreed with the Copernican theory. Instead, in the year 1637 he published his famous Discourse on the Method for properly Guiding the Reason and Finding Truth in the Sciences (usually summarized only Discourse on Method).

Discourse was written in French and not Latin so that all the intelligence to read, including those who did not get a classic education. In addition there are three essays Discourse.

Therein Descartes presents examples of discoveries that have been done by using that method. First additional Optics, Descartes explains the law of light deflection (that were discovered by Willebord Snell). He also questioned the issue of various lenses and optical instruments, describing functions and various eye-kelainannya disorders and describe the essence of light theory beginner version of the recent wave theory formulated by Christiaan Huygens. Both consist of additional discussion of meteorological affairs, Descartes was talking about clouds, rain, wind, and the precise explanation of the rainbow. He issued a rebuttal to the opinion that the heat of an invisible fluid of the eye, and he rightly concluded that the heat is a form of internal movement. (However, this opinion has been found first by Francis Bacon and others). The third additional geometry, he presents the most important contribution of all of the above, the discovery of analytic geometry. This is a huge step of progress in mathematics, and provides a way for Newton discovered calculus.

Perhaps, the most interesting part of the philosophy of Descartes was the way he started something. Examining a large number of opinions are generally wrong people have been agreed, Descartes concluded to seek the real truth he should start doing step plain and clear. For that, he began by doubting everything, what the teacher said. Dubious dubious beliefs that have been prevailing opinion, doubting the existence outside the world of nature, and even doubted his own existence. Anyway, doubt everything.

This shit just to make him face the problems that confront: is it possible solution to overcome the doubts that so universal, and whether it is possible to find reliable knowledge about everything? However, through metaphysical reasons that smart, he could satisfy himself that he actually "there" ( "I think, therefore I am"), and God exists outside of nature and the world is there. This is the first step of the theory of Descartes.

Significance of Descartes's theory has a double value. First, he placed the center of his philosophy system epistomologis fundamental problems, "Did muasalnya origins of human knowledge that?" previous philosophers have tried to paint a picture of the world. Descartes taught us that such questions can not give a satisfactory answer except when linked to the question "How do I know?"

Second, Descartes suggested we should go instead to the trust, but with doubt. (This is completely opposite of the attitude of St. Augustine, and generally middle-century theologians that faith must come first). It is true that Descartes then went on and came to the conclusion that the orthodox theologically, but his readers are more interested and pay greater attention to the methods developed than kongklusi which he pulled. (Fear of the church that Descartes writings will eventually become dangerous, obviously).

In philosophy, Descartes emphasizes real difference between the mind and material objects, and in this connection he defended dualism. This difference has been made before, but the writings of Descartes' philosophical discussions about promoting it. Dikemukakannya interesting problems that philosophers since then, and remains unresolved.

Another major influence of Descartes' conception is about the physical universe. He was sure, all of nature - except God and the human spirit - to work mechanically, and therefore all events can be explained naturally and from mechanical causes. On this basis he rejected the assumptions astrology, magic and other ketahayulan. Meaning, he rejected all teleological explanations of events. (That is, he's looking for the causes direct mechanical and reject the assumption that the incident happened to something far final destination). From the view of Descartes, in fact, all beings are complicated machines, and the human body was subject to the usual mechanical laws. This opinion has since become one of the fundamental ideas of modern physiology.

Descartes menggandrungi scientific investigation and he believed that practical use can be beneficial to the community. He thought, scientists must stay away from opinions that false and should try to describe the world mathematically. All this modern sounds. However, Descartes, through his own observations had never meant it emphasizes the importance of experiments ruwetnya scientific method.

A famous English philosopher, Francis Bacon, have expressed the need for scientific investigation and the benefits that can be expected from there several years before Descartes. And Descartes famous argument that says "I think, therefore I exist," is not an original opinion. It has been proposed more than 1200 years earlier (although in a different sentence, of course) by the St. Augustine. The same is about "proof" Descartes the existence of God is a variation of the ontological opinion first expressed by St.. Anselm (1033-1109).

In 1641 Descartes published his famous Meditations. And his book Principles of philosophy appeared in 1644. The second book was originally written in Latin and French translation appeared in 1647.

Although Descartes was a lively writer with a lovely prose style, the tone of the writing was old-fashioned. He really looks (perhaps due to a rational approach, he's like the middle of the century scholars. Instead of Francis Bacon, though born thirty-five years before Descartes, the tone of modern writing).

Clearly in his writings, Descartes was a firm belief about the existence of God. He considers himself an obedient Catholic, but the Catholic church did not like his views, and his work is classified into the "index" of books forbidden to read. Even among Protestant Holland (at that time probably the most tolerant country in Europe), Descartes was accused of an atheist and have trouble with the authorities.

Year 1649 Descartes accepted an offer considerable financial assistance from Queen Christina, Sweden, to come to his country and his own teacher. Descartes was very disappointed when he knew that the Queen wants to be taught at five o'clock in the morning! He worried that the cold morning air can membikinnya die. And it's true: he got pneumonia, died in February 1650, just four months after the till in Sweden.

Descartes never married, but had a daughter who unfortunately died young.

Philosophy of Descartes was criticized sharply by many contemporary philosophers, partly because they consider that philosophy uses reason in circles. Some again showed the flaws in the system. And very few people today who defend it with all my heart. However, the significance of a philosopher is not the truth lies in the system; but on whether the least important ideas, or whether his ideas were copied and influential people at large. From this measure, Little doubt that Descartes was an important figure.

There are at least five ideas that Descartes had a significant influence on the European mind: (a) The mechanical view of the universe; (b) a positive attitude toward scientific assessments; (c) pressure, placed on the use of mathematics in science; (d) defense of the basic initial skepticism, and (e) penitikpusatan attention to epistemology.

Concluded that the overall significance of Descartes, I am also considering the impressive scientific discovery, especially discovery of analytic geometry. These factors make the reasons I put Descartes in the sequence is somewhat higher than the famous philosopher, philosophers such as Voltaire, Rousseau, and Francis Bacon. Michael H. Hart,One hundred most influential figures in the history.

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John Locke,Philosopher of Basic Idea Democratic Constitution

The first philosopher who gather in an integrated basic idea is the democratic constitution of England: John Locke. Thoughts emit a strong influence to the founders of the Republic dedengkot United States. Not only that, his influence is also strongly penetrated the hearts of the French reformer movement.
Locke was born in 1632 in Wrington, England.
He was educated at Oxford University, obtained a bachelor's degree in 1656 and full-year bachelor's degree in 1658. As a teenager he was very interested in science and at the age of thirty-six years he was elected a member of the "Royal Society." He became best of friends famous chemist Robert Boyle and then most of his life became a close friend of Isaac Newton. The field of medicine he was interested and took a bachelor's degree in that field even if only once in a while just to practice.

The turning point in Locke's life was his acquaintance with the Prince of Shaftesbury. He became secretary and became a family doctor. Shaftesbury an important spokesman for the liberal mind that although he had briefly imprisoned by King Charles II by his political activities. Year 1682 Shaftesbury fled to Holland and died there the following year. Locke, thanks to the relationship that was so familiar with the late, constantly monitored and the shadow, because it forced him also fled to the Netherlands in 1683. He settled in the country until the successor of King Charles, King James II was overthrown by a revolution that succeeded. Locke returned to his village in 1689 and onwards settled in England. Never married, and died in the year 1704.

The first book is to make Locke's famous An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (Essay on human understanding), published in 1690. There questioned the origin, nature, and limitations of human knowledge. Locke's ideas in turn influence the philosopher-philosopher like the Reverend George Berkeley, David Hume and Immanuel Kant. Although the essay was the work of Locke's most original and is one of the famous classical philosophy, its influence is not for the writings of political affairs issues.

In the book, A Letter Concerning Toleration (The problem with tolerance) published in 1689, Locke stressed that the state should not interfere too much in terms of religious freedoms of religious belief according to each one. Locke is not the first British man who proposed the existence of religious tolerance of all Protestant sects. But a strong argument he gave, which sided with the need for zero tolerance is a factor of support for his vision population. More than that, Locke developed a tolerance to the principle of non-Christian groups: "... both the primitive faiths, Jewish or Islamic or may not be reduced civil rights in the country solely on religious considerations." However, Locke believed that this tolerance does not apply to Catholic groups because Locke believed they depend on outside forces for help, and also no tolerance for atheists. Times the size he is now practically very charitable, but reasoned look at the relationship with the ideas of his day. Facts noted, the reasons for the creation dikemukakannya religious tolerance is more convincing readers of pengecualianpengecualian made. Now, thanks to the writings of Locke, religious tolerance was widespread even in groups who had been excommunicated.

Another significance of Locke is his book Two Treatises of Government (Two persepakatan the government) published in 1689 that it is the basic idea that penyuguhan emphasize the importance of liberal democratic constitution. The book's influence on political thought throughout the English-speaking world. Locke was absolutely convinced that every human being has a natural right, and it is not just about living things, but also personal freedom and rights of ownership of something. The main task of government is to protect people and property of citizens. This view is often called the "theory of the night by the government."

Rejecting the sacred right of kings presumption, Locke emphasized that the new government can run the rule over the approval of the governed. "Personal freedom in the community under the agreed upon legislative power in a country." Locke strongly emphasize something he calls "social contract." This thinking stems partly from the writings of former British philosopher, Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679). However, if Hobbes uses "social contract" is to strengthen the absolutism, Locke saw the "social contract" that can be replaced:

"... When legislators tried to seize and destroy the property of the population, or reduce them and lead to slavery under the rule, they are in a state of war with the population, and therefore the population free from mistakes if they are disobedient and let God take refuge in the shade of which was provided care for all people from violence and progress. "

Also, still the power of the people to overthrow and replace its representative body at the sight of their representatives act contrary to kepercayaaii placed on their shoulders "Locke's persistent attitude to maintain the right to revolution is very strongly influenced Thomas Jefferson and other American revolutionaries.

Locke needs to cling to the separation of powers. He considers the legislative power should be superior to the executive and the judiciary which is considered the executive branch. As people who believe in the benefits of legislative power. Locke almost always opposed the right of the court which decided that legislative action was not unconstitutional.

Although Locke insist on the principle of majority rule, but makes clear that a government does not have power without limits. The majority must not damage the nature of human rights. A government can only be right to take title to favor the ruled. (In America, this idea is expressed in the slogan, "No taxation without representation.") Michael H. Hart,One hundred most influential figures in the history.

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Plato, Ancient Greek philosopher

Ancient Greek philosopher Plato, no doubt the origin of the Western political philosophers as well as ethical thinking and master their metaphysics. His opinions in this field is read widely for more than 2300 years. No doubt, Plato as the father of an ancestral status of Western thinkers,
Plato was born of the famous family of Athens around the year 427 BC. In his teens he became acquainted with famous philosopher Socrates, who became a teacher and friend. 399 years BC, when Socrates was seventy years old, he was dragged into court with baseless accusations do shit and deprave the young generation Athens. Socrates was condemned, sentenced to death. Execution of Socrates - Plato called "the wisest, most honest, best of all human beings I have ever known" - make Plato hated democratic government.

Not long after the death of Socrates, Plato left Athens and during the ten-twelve years of wandering to where the feet take.

Around the year 387 BC he returned to Athens, founded the university there, a college that runs more than 900 years. Plato spent the rest of his life forty years in Athens, teaching and writing philosophy affairs. Famous pupil, Aristotle, who were college students at the age of seventeen, while Plato was time turns sixty years. Plato blind eye at the age of seventy.

Plato wrote no fewer than thirty-six books, mostly about political issues and ethics than metaphysics and theology. Of course, impossible to summarize the contents of the book in just a few sentences. However, with the risk of simplifying his thoughts, I will try also to summarize the main points presented in her politic. idea that famous book, the Republic, which represent his thoughts about what he thought of an ideal society.

The best form of a government, Plato suggested, is a government that is held by the aristocrats. What is meant here rather than aristocratic aristocratic measured from the high dose, the government set in motion by the best and wisest son in the country. These people should be chosen not by voting but by people with the decision process. The people who have become members of the ruling or the called the "guardian" must be added the people who merely equals on the basis of quality considerations.

Plato believed that for all people, whether he was male or female, must be provided the opportunity to show skill as a member of the "guardian". Plato is the first major philosopher, and in the long term it's just the fact he, who proposed the equality of opportunity regardless of sex. To prove the equality provision of the occasion, Plato suggested that the growth and education of children is managed by the state. The children first kudu obtain a thorough physical exercise, but in terms of music, mathematics and other academic disciplines should not be ignored. At some stage, extensive tests must be conducted. Those who are less advanced must participate diaalurkan to engage in community economic activities, while the people who must continue to proceed forward and receive training gemblengan. The addition of this education should include not only the usual academic subjects, but also explore the philosophy that by examining the doctrine of Plato is the ideal form of schools of metaphysics.

At the age of thirty-five years, these people are indeed totally convinced able to demonstrate mastery in the field of basic theories, must undergo additional training again for fifteen years, which should include working for practical experience. Only people who are able to show that they can realize the real work in the form of the books he studied can be classified into the "guardian class." More than that, only people who clearly could. shows that the main interest is to serve the interests of society that can be accepted into the. "guardian class."

Membership guardian does not necessarily attract public attention. Because, to be guardian is not much to get money. They are only allowed to have private property and a limited amount of land should not have made his personal home. They receive a certain salary and fixed (it was in a modest amount), and not allowed to have gold or silver. Members guardian is not allowed to have a separate family place, they must eat in unison, a pair together. Reward-frontman frontman for this philosopher rather than wealth, but the satisfaction in serving the public interest. That's short of an ideal republic of Plato.

Widely read of the Republic for centuries. But it should be noted, advocated a political system in it has never actually practiced as a model of any government. During the period between the time of Plato until now, most European countries adopted the royal system. In recent centuries some countries adopt democratic forms of government. There is also the adopted system of military rule, or under the tyrannical demagogues such as Hitler and Mussolini. None of these governments have a resemblance to Plato's ideal republic. Plato's theory was never a conviction of any political party, or so base a political movement as occurs in the teachings of Karl Marx, if we can thus conclude that the work of Plato, although discussed with respect, is entirely excluded people in practice? I think not.

It is true, none of the civil government in Europe was based on Plato's model directly. However, there are remarkable similarities between the Catholic church's position in the middle of the century Europe with the "guardian class" Plato. Medieval Catholic Church consists of the elite who defend themselves in order not to wither and marginalized, whose members have a philosophical exercises official. In principle, all men, no matter where their origin can be selected in the clergy (although not for women). Also, in principle, the priests had no family and are solely directed them to focus on their own group, rather than lust exalted majesty flattered.

The role of the Communist party in the Soviet Union there is also a comparison with the "guardian class" in Plato's ideal republic he had. Here too we find that all of the elite group trained by the official philosophy.

Plato's ideas also influenced the structure of the United States government. Many members of the American constitutional convention known and familiar with the political ideas of Plato. He meant, of course, that the United States Constitution opens the possibility of digging and influence the will of the people. And also desirable as a means of selecting people who are most wise and best to govern the country.

Difficulty determining the significance of Plato's influence throughout the period - although the vast and spread out - is complicated and is not exposed directly. In addition to his political theory, the discussion in the field of ethics and metaphysics has influenced many philosophers who came later. If Plato placed on slightly lower order than Aristotle in the current list, it is primarily because Aristotle is not only a philosopher but also an important scientist. Conversely, placement of the order of Plato higher than thinkers like John Locke, Thomas Jefferson and Voltaire, why because the writings of political influence world affairs in a period of just two or three centuries, while Plato had coverage for more than twenty-three centuries.Michael H. Hart,One hundred most influential figures in the history.

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Euclid, The Great Greek geometer

Not many people are fortunate to have a lasting fame as Euclid, Greek geometer great. Although during his life figures like Napoleon, Martin Luther, Alexander the Great, much more famous than Euclid's, but in the long-term fame can hit all those that called it.
In addition to his fame, almost no detailed information on the life of Euclid, which can be known. For example, we know who has been active as a teacher in Alexandria, Egypt, around 300 BC, but when he was born and when he died really dark. In fact, we do not know what continent and in what city he was born. Although he wrote several books and some of them still left, his place in history is found mainly in the great textbooknya of geometry called The Elements.

The importance of the book of the elements are not in a state of personal formulas he gave. Most theories contained in the book was never written before, and can also be verified. Euclid's contribution lies in how to establish the materials and the problems and the formulation of the books of the overall development planning. Trapped here, above all, the selection of the arguments and calculations of the estimates, for example, about a possible draw a straight line between two points. After that, with care and caution so that the proposition to establish easily understood by the people later. Whenever necessary, provides instructions on how to resolve things unresolved and the development of experiments to the problem of missing persons. It should be noted that the book of other elements to the development of any one of a strict geometry, also contains, in addition, the parties on the next big theory algebraic sum.

Book The Elements is a standard textbook of more than 2000 years and is undoubtedly the most successful textbook ever created humans. So much so that the composition of his Euclid by its shape alone is able to put aside all the textbooks that have limited previous and never ignored again. Originally written in Greek, then the book The Elements was translated into several languages. The first issue appeared in 1482, some 30 years before the invention of printing by Gutenberg. Since the invention of the printing machine and diterbitkanlah in thousands of different style editing.

As a tool of the logic of the human mind coach, the book The Elements is much more influential than all of Aristotle's treatises on logic. The book is a complete example on the structure of deductive and is a fruit of thought of all the amazing creations of the human brain.

It is fair to say that the book of Euclid is an important factor for the growth of modern science. Science is not just a collection of observations that are accurate and not mere generalizations strong and wise. The results of a torn modern science came from a combination of empirical research and experiments on the one hand, with careful analysis and conclusions that have a strong base on the other.

Still wondering what science is, as she appeared in Europe and not China, but it is safe assuming that it is not merely an issue due to an accident. In fact, the role driven by brilliant people like Newton, Galileo and Copernicus have a special meaning. However, there must be reason-musababnya why these people appeared in Europe. Maybe all the historical factors that make the more surprising that Europe's influence in terms of science is a Greek rationalism, along with the mathematical knowledge inherited from the Greeks to Europe. It should be noted that the Chinese - despite many centuries, more advanced technology than Europe - have never had a theoretical mathematical structure, which belongs to Europe. No one was Chinese mathematician who has a relationship to Euclid. Chinese people a great learning experience about the science of practical geometry, but the knowledge of geometry than ever were made in a system that contains the conclusions.

For Europeans, the assumption that there are basic principles of physics that everything seems reasonable because they have the example of Euclid, who was behind them. In general, Europeans do not assume Euclidean geometry is only an abstract system, but are convinced that the idea of Euclid - and the theory itself - is a reality.

Influence of Euclid by Sir Isaac Newton was very clear, since the book Newton's Principia kesohornya How kegeometrian, similar to the elements. Several scientists tried to identify with Euclid, showing how all of their conclusions logically derived originally from the original hypotheses. Nothing except what is done by mathematicians such as Russell, Whitehead, the philosopher Spinoza.

Now, mathematicians have understood that the geometry of Euclid. is not the only system that is so basic geometry and firm grip and can plan well, I also understand that during the last 150 years many people who define the geometry of Euclid in place of the. In fact, since the theory of relativity Einstein accepted people, scientists realized that Euclidean geometry is not always true in the implementation of real horizon problem. In the vicinity of some "black hole" and a neutron star - for example - where gravity is largely non-Euclidean geometry to give an accurate picture of the world, or do not show the proper description of space in general. However, these examples are rare, because in many cases employment estimates Euclid gives the possibility of approaching reality. The progress of human knowledge in these days neither reduces nor the intellectual efforts of Euclid and the importance of his position in history.by Michael H. Hart,One hundred most influential figures in the history.

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Charles Darwin's Inventor of organic evolution theory

Law, along with the birth of Abraham Lincoln, February 12, 1809 in Shrewsbury, England. Inventor Charles Darwin's theory of organic evolution in terms of natural selection at the age of sixteen entered the University of Edinburgh to study medicine, but both medical and anatomical science that makes considered boring. Shortly after he moved to Cambridge to learn the elements of office administration. Even so, hunting and horseback riding at Cambridge digemarinya much more to learn science. And yet, you can still attract the attention of one of the great teachers who pushed to participate in research on the HMS Beagle, as naturalist. At first her father objected to his appointment. She thought the trip was only a pretext, of course, Darwin reluctant to do serious work. Fortunately, later convinced his father and to bless the journey that ultimately became the most valuable in the history of European science.
Darwin began to sail aboard the Beagle, in 1831. At that time only twenty years. During the five-year voyage, the ship sailed the Beagle in the world, traveling the coast of South America at a thrilling pace, explore the deserted islands of the remote Galapagos Islands, mengambah islands in the Pacific Ocean from Indonesia and South Atlantic Ocean. In perkelanaan that Darwin witnessed many natural wonders, visiting primitive tribes, found a large number of fossils, examine the different types of plants and animals. Beyond that, he made many notes about anything that passes in front of your eyes. These records are the basic ingredient of almost all of his work in the future. From these records were only ideas, and events and experiences to support their theories.
Darwin returned home in 1836 and twenty years later he published a line of books that made him famous biologist in the UK. Since 1837, Darwin believed that animals and plants are not fixed, but experienced a change in geological history. At the moment I had realized what the cause of evolution. In 1838 he read the essay "On the Principle of Population" by Thomas Malthus. This book made Malthusian menyuguhkannya encourage more convinced of natural selection through competition for sustaining life. Even after Darwin had formulated the principles of natural selection, which was in no hurry to print and publish. He was aware, his theory would invite challenges. Because of that, it takes long time to develop the evidence carefully and put the horses to defend if there is an attack scenario.
Outline of the theory written in 1842 and in 1844 began compiling an extensive book. In June 1858, when Darwin was beautify and perfect his masterpiece, the book received a manuscript from Alfred Russel Wallace (a British naturalist who was in the East) outlined his own theory of evolution. In each of the core issues, along with the theory of Darwinian theory, Wallace! Wallace set his theory is really standing on his own and sent the manuscript to Darwin's writings to solicit opinions and feedback from prominent scientists signed before printing. The situation is bad, it is easy to develop a battle we do not want to fight priorities. The solution, both Wallace and the script outline of Darwin's theory discussed simultaneously by a scientific body in the next month.
Simply stunning, this problem is not so ignored pengedepanan people. Darwin's book The Origin of Species published in the next year, causing a stir. It is in fact probably never have published a book of knowledge so widespread and became the material for a warm conversation, both scientific and lay, as in the book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection or the Preservation of Favored Races in the strugle for Life. They presented their argument continued in 1871, when he exclaimed Darwin published The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to sex. This book raised the idea that human beings come from a species of monkey, which he called the debate added more opinions.
Darwin himself did not participate in public debate about the theories they say. It could be due to health perkelanaannya perhaps because the ship Beagle parrjang (probably due to fever, Chagas disease, due to insect bites in Latin America). And it could be because it feels good to have as strong supporters of Thomas H. Huxley was a good debate and defense of Darwin's theory, most scientists accept the basic truth of Darwin's theory, when in that year Niatia 1882.
Actually - if you want to talk real or not real - not the first discoverer of Darwin's evolutionary theory of creation. Some people have been loud in front of him, including the French naturalist Jean Lamarek and Darwin's grandfather, Erasmus Darwin.
However, his hypothesis was never accepted by the world of science, since it was unable to generate confidence in how and how evolution occurs. Darwin's greatest contribution is its ability not only present the mechanism of natural selection that led to the emergence of natural evolution, but also can serve a lot of evidence to support the hypothesis.
Note, Darwin's theory was formulated without the back of any genetic theory, or even that he knew nothing of that knowledge. In Darwin's time, nobody special Happenings Faham how a new generation. Although Gregor Mendel's laws end the descendants of those years coincided with the time Darwin wrote and published a book that makes history, Mendel's work to support Darwin's theory was so perfect, Mendel was ignored almost entirely of people until 1900, when Darwin's theory must be established and stable. In both, our modern understanding of evolution - which is a combination of genetic science with the legal descendants of natural selection - is more complete than Darwin's theory posed.
Darwin's influence on human thought in sekah. In connection with pure science, of course, who had committed acts of revolutionary all aspects of biology. Natural selection really have a set of very general principles and fundamental experiments have been conducted in various application fields such as anthropology, sociology, political science and economics.
Perhaps the most important influence on Darwin's thinking in terms of religion rather than science or sociology. In Darwin's time and for years thereafter, many supporters of the faithful believe that the acceptance of Darwin's theory that reducing the degree of belief in religion. It is, in essence, although it can be clearly many other factors that cause so lunturnya due to religious beliefs. (Darwin himself became a secular).
Even on the basis of a secular, Darwinian cause major changes in how people in his thoughts on world affairs (the human race seems) as a whole no longer occupies a central position in the natural scheme of nature like creatures that had akukan. Now we must see ourselves as just a part of many creatures and are aware of the possibility that would change the tempo. Following the research findings of Darwin, the view that Heraclitus said, "Nothing is permanent except change" becomes more widely accepted. The success of the theory of evolution as a general explanation of the origin of humans has been further strengthened confidence in the ability of science to answer any question that the physical world (though not all human problems and human). Deadline for Darwin, "the strong defeating the weak" and "struggle for life" has entered a part of our vocabulary.by Michael H. Hart,One hundred most influential figures in the history.

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Aristoteles, The Great Philosopher

Almost undeniable, Aristotle was a philosopher and the greatest scientist in the world of the past. He pioneered the logic of research topics, enriched almost every branch of philosophy and knowledge contributed greatly to the ineffable.
Many of Aristotle's ideas are now obsolete. But the most important of what Aristotle had done is a rational approach that always underlies his work. Aristotle Tulisantulisan reflected in its attitude to all aspects of human life or society is always open for the objects of thought and analysis. Aristotle's view, the universe is not completely controlled by chance, by magic, a desire that God's unfathomable that unexpected, but the behavior of the universe is subject to rational laws. This, according to the belief necessary for people to question every aspect of the natural world in a systematic and Aristotle we should take advantage of empirical observations and the reasons why, of course, before making decisions. Series of these attitudes - that contrary to tradition, superstition and mysticism - has profoundly influenced European civilization.
Aristotle was born in the city of Stagira, Macedonia, 384 BC. His father was a famous physicist. At the age of seventeen Aristotle went to Athens to study at Plato's Academy. He remained there for twenty years until Plato died recently. From his father, Aristotle may have encouraged interest in biology and "practical knowledge". Under the tutelage of Plato instilled an interest in philosophical speculation.
In the year 342 BC, Aristotle returned to Macedonia, a master of a king's son was thirteen years later in a famous story of Alexander the Great. Alexander Aristotle educate young people in recent years. In 335 BC, after Alexander's royal throne, Aristotle returned to Athens and opened there own school, the Lyceum. It was in Athens two years, a period that coincided with the military conquests of Alexander's career. Alexander did not seek advice from his former master, but he was kind enough to provide funds to Aristotle, to carry out investigations. Perhaps this is the first example in history of a scientist to accept a large amount of public funds for research and is also the last in the following centuries.
Still, Alexander has teamed up with various hazards. Aristotle rejected, in principle, how the dictatorship of Alexander as the conqueror Alexander the cousin to death on charges of menghianat Aristotle, Alexander also had a mind to kill Aristotle. First, Aristotle too democratic in the eyes of Alexander, also had a close relationship with Alexander and the confidence of the people of Athens. When Alexander died in 323 BC, the anti-Macedonian group to power in Athens and Aristotle was accused of disrespect to the gods. Aristotle, remembering the fate of Socrates, 76 years earlier, ran to the left of the city, saying it would be given a second chance to those who sin against the Athenian philosophers. Aristotle died in exile for several months later in 322 BC C. at the age of sixty-two years.
Results of pure Aristotle surprising figures. Forty-seven of his works survived. List of past records of not less than one hundred and seventy the results of the creation of books. In fact, not only the great number of titles are impressive, but the wide scope of power of material civilization is no less great meditations less. Scientific work that really is the encyclopedia of knowledge for its time. Aristotle wrote about astronomy, zoology, Embryologia, geography, geology, physics, anatomy, physiology, and almost every time his work was known in ancient Greece. The results of his scientific work, is partly a collection of knowledge gained attention assistants to collect data for him, while others are the result of a series of his own observations.
To be an expert in most excellent in all branches of the impossibility of the magic and no duplicates in the next. But what has been achieved by Aristotle, even more than that. It was an original philosopher, was the main contributor in all major areas of speculative philosophy, writes on ethics and metaphysics, psychology, economics, theology, politics, rhetoric, beauty, education, poetry, customs and the constitutions of Athens late. A project is a collection of different studies use the land for comparative studies.
Perhaps the most important of the many results of their work is the investigation of the theory of logic, Aristotle considered the founder of an important branch of this philosophy. It is actually due to the nature of Aristotle's logical way of thinking that allows to offer so many disciplines. She has the talent to establish ways of thinking, to formulate standards and the type of guy who later became the basis of thinking in many fields of science. Aristotle never kejeblos in extreme swamp or mysticism. Aristotle, always insist on the practice expressing their views. Of course, the name of person, who also made mistakes. However, few errors, it is surprising he made in a vast encyclopedia.
Aristotle's influence on Western thought in the back of the day was profound. In earlier times and medieval times, their works translated into languages Latin, Arabic, Italian, French, Hebrew, German and English. Greek writers who came after, so did the Byzantine philosopher-philosopher studying his work and put a very impressive. Must also be taken into account, many of his reflections on the impact of Islamic philosophers and centuries old writings dominated Western thought. Ibn Rushd (Averroes), philosopher, perhaps the most prominent Arab, trying to make a synthesis between Islamic theology with Aristotelian rationalism. Maimomides, the foremost thinkers of the century Jewish synthesis achieved with Judaism. However, the most glorious work of acts, as is his Summa Theologia of St. Christian scholars. Thomas Aquinas. Out of this list is still largely a century intellectuals who influenced the way the mind of Aristotle.
Aristotle's admiration for people just jumped in the middle of the century when the situation has come to idolatry. In these circumstances, the writings of Aristotle, is more a kind of intellectual pack of saying that the issue even more problems than the type of light bulbs in the street. Aristotle likes to study and think about their relationship less clear according to the blind admiration of the next generation of his writings.
Some of the ideas of Aristotle seem reactionary now measured with glasses. For example, advocates of slavery, as it believes, in line with the line of natural law. And he believes humble dignity of women than men. Both ideas, of course - reflecting the prevailing view at that time. But no less impressive modern Aristotle too many thoughts, for example the sentence: "Poverty is the parent of revolution and crime" and the phrase "He who has reflected deeply the art of governing mankind must believe that the fate depends on emperium something in the education of young children. "(Of course, at that time there was no school as we know it today).by Michael H. Hart,One hundred most influential figures in the history.

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Karl Marx, Pioneer The Idea of Scientific Socialism

Karl Marx, the main pioneer of the idea of "scientific socialism", was born in 1818 in the city of Trier, Germany, his father and his lawyer at the age of seventeen Karl entered the University of Bonn, is studying law. He later moved to the University of Berlin and then a doctorate in philosophy from the University of Jena.
Whether that was more concerned, Marx was immersed in the world of journalism and briefly became editor of the Rheinische Zeitung in Cologne. However, radical political views lead to a mix of problems and was forced to move to Paris. That's where he met Friedrich Engels first. String of friendship and equality binding on both the policy of visits to this person as a single bilingual until his death.
Marx could not long stay in Paris, and immediately expelled from there and bring a suitcase to travel to Brussels. In this city, in 1847 first published his thoughts are important and the great poverty of philosophy (philosophy of Poverty). The following year, to join hands together with Friedrich Engels published their Communist Manifesto, a book that eventually became the world of reading.There exile after exile here, finally, crossing the Straits of Marx's Channel and settled in London until the end.
Although there are only a little money thanks koceknya journalistic work, Marx spent a great deal of his time in London to research and write books on politics and economics. (In years Marx and family members can help the cost of living of his best friend Friedrich Engels). The first volume of Capital, Marx's most important scientific papers published in 1867. When Marx died in 1883, two volumes of the connection has not been fully completed. Both volumes were compiled and published oIeh connections Engels held in the notes and manuscripts left by Marx.
The works of Marx formulated the theoretical basis of Communism. Judging by the tremendous growth of this movement in the 20th century, so if it's worth a place in the higher purpose of this book. The problem is, what?
The main factor for this decision is the calculation of the long-term importance of communist history. Since the growth of communism as an integral part of contemporary history, was a bit difficult to determine the prospect of future care. Although no one could determine how communism can grow and how long it can survive this ideology, that ideology is undoubtedly a strong and tough and strong roots dig into the earth, and has certainly had a great influence in the world for at least several centuries to come.
Currently, about a century after Marx's death, the number of people who, less influenced by Marxism has about 1.3 billion numbers. The number of believers is greater than the number of adherents of any ideology in human history. Not only the absolute numbers but as a group of the world's total population. This led to the communists, and also some non-Communists, believed that the future can not Marxism triumphed worldwide. However, it is difficult to establish the truth in the belief that no bergoyah. There have been many examples of the ideology that seems very important influence in his time, but eventually wither and disappear. (The religion founded by Mani could be an interesting example). If we move in 1900, it seems clear that constitutional democracy is the current fashion, which is the future. Clinging to hope, it seems, but now more people who believe everything that has happened to the original image.
Now about communism. Putting a person believes so and know exactly how great the influence of Communists in the world today and the future of the world, but people on the significance of Karl Marx in the Communist movement. The Soviet government's policy now seems not supervised by the works of Marx who wrote the foundations of the mind like Hegel's dialectic of style and the theory of "value". Theories seemed little influence on the practice of rotation of the wheel of the Soviet government policy, both within and outside the political sphere.
Communism today is focused on four ideas: (1) small town Sekelumit rich live in luxury in abundance, while workers in many poor live miserable wallowing. (2) How to dismantle this injustice is to implement a socialist system, a system in which the state controlled the production team and not by an individual. (3) In general, only the most practical way to implement the socialist system is through violent revolution. (4) To maintain continuity of the socialist system should be governed by the dictatorship of the Communist Party in sufficient time.
Three of the first idea was clearly expressed by Marx. While the idea came from the four ideas of Marx's "dictatorship of the proletariat." Meanwhile, the duration of the validity of the Soviet dictatorship, now is more a consequence of the steps of Lenin and Stalin, Marx's ideas. This seems to lead to the assumption that the influence of Marx on Communism is smaller than reality, and appreciation of the written, rather etalasi only to justify the nature of "scholarship" of ideas and the policy been made and accepted.
While it may be true in this scenario, but it seems too excessive. Lenin, for example, not only consider themselves to follow the teachings of Marx, but really read it, live it, and accept it. The safe way dilimpahkannya just above the tracks down Marx. So what happened to Mao Zedong and other Communist leaders. True, Marx's ideas may have been misunderstood and interpreted, but this sort of thing also applies to the teachings of Jesus or Buddha or Islam. If all the political basis of the government of China and the Soviet Union left directly from the writings of Marx, who obtained a higher degree of order in this list of books.
It could be argued that Lenin, the practical politician who actually founded the communist state has a stake in the construction of communism as an ideology that is so great influence in the world. This argument makes sense. Lenin was an important figure. But in my opinion, the writings of Marx's such a great influence on the minds of not only Lenin, but also from other Communist leaders, are clearly the most important position.
There is also an opportunity to discuss whether the assessment of Marxism terumusnya not be split between Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. They wrote "The Communist Manifesto and Engels clearly had a profound influence on the final settlement of Das Kapital. Although each book in its own name individually, but are the intellectual partnership so intimate that the overall results can be considered as work together. In fact, Marx and Engels are treated as one entity in this book, although only include the name of Marx because (I think I am correct) is considered the dominant partner in a broad sense.
Finally, often accused of Marxist theory in the economy is very bad and very bad. Of course, many specific allegations of Marx was wrong. For example, Marx predicted that the capitalist countries, workers will be more extended in time travel. Obviously, this prediction is not proven. Marx also takes into account that the medium will be exposed to people and most come in the proletarian class, and only a few can get up and out of the capitalist class. Certainly this was never proven. Marx also seems to believe, the increasing mechanization reduces the profits of the capitalists, trust is not only wrong but also looks stupid. But regardless of whether economic theory is right or wrong, had nothing to do with the influence of Marx. The importance of a philosopher is not in his opinion, but the truth is on the question of whether his thoughts have moved people to act or not. Measured from this angle, of course, Karl Marx had a wonderful huge importance.by Michael H. Hart,One hundred most influential figures in the history.

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